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Oxygen activity and surface stability are two key parameters in the searchfor advanced materials for intermediate temperature solid oxide electrochemicalcells, as overall device performance depends critically on them. In particular$in$ $situ$ and $operando$ characterisation techniques have accelerated theunderstanding of degradation processes and the identification of active sites,motivating the design and synthesis of improved, nanoengineered materials. Inthis short topical review we report on the latest developments of varioussophisticated $in$ $situ$ and $operando$ characterization techniques, includingTransmission and Scanning Electron Microscopy (TEM and SEM), surface-enhancedRaman spectroscopy (SERS), Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), X-rayDiffraction (XRD) and synchrotron based X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), among others. We focus on their use inthree emerging topics, namely: (i) the analysis of general electrochemicalreactions and the surface defect chemistry of electrode materials; (ii) theevolution of electrode surfaces achieved by nanoparticle exsolution forenhanced oxygen activity and (iii) the study of surface degradation caused bySr segregation, leading to reduced durability. For each of these topics wehighlight the most remarkable examples recently published. We anticipate thatongoing improvements in the characterisation techniques and especially acomplementary use of them by multimodal approaches will lead to improvedknowledge of $operando$ processes, hence allowing a significant advancement incell performance in the near future.

$In$ $situ$ and $operando$ characterisation techniques for solid oxide electrochemical cells: Recent advances