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In undulatory locomotion, torques along the body are required to overcomeexternal forces from the environment and bend the body. Using a resistive forcetheory model, we find that the torque from external resistive forces has atraveling wave pattern with decreasing speed as the wave number (the number ofwavelengths on the locomotor's body) increases from 0.5 to 1.8, and the torquetransitions into a two-wave-like pattern and complex patterns as the wavenumber increases to values of 2 and greater values. Using phasor diagramsanalysis, we reveal the formation and transitions of the pattern as theconsequences of the integration and cancellation of force phasors.

Transition and formation of the torque pattern of undulatory locomotion in resistive force dominated media