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This paper explores Hindu East Bengali/Pakistani/Bangladeshi belonging as a contingent relation of inclusion that is constitutive of securing majoritarian rule. I argue that despite their formal citizenship status, Hindus are produced as undeserving others, as proxy citizens, a status that casts them as having questionable loyalty to their country of birth. I explore this production as a relation of in-situ displacement, a characterization that reveals their relation to place that does not depend on physical mobility. I offer an historical analysis that highlights the country’s relation to changing national and transnational relations of a dependent political economy as a colony, under military rule, and as a democratic formation, where Bangladesh is characterized by ongoing, if uneven, tensions between majoritarianism and more inclusive forms of belonging.

Displacement and the production of difference: East Pakistan/Bangladesh, 1947–1990