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A fully coupled thermal–microstructural–mechanical finite element modelling framework is developed to investigate the distortion and residual stresses during directed energy deposition (DED) of multi-phase Ti–6Al–4V alloy. The Johnson–Cook constitutive model is used to predict the yield strength of each phase as a function of strain, strain rate and temperature where the flow stress is calculated by a linear mixing rule based on the volumetric phase fractions. A thin-walled rectangular sample is chosen as the reference geometry and the results are compared with experimentally measured  in situ  thermal history and distortion data, where a reasonable agreement is achieved. The proposed modelling framework with physics-based material constitutive model provides useful information for a better understanding of process–microstructure–property relations in additive manufacturing by DED.

A fully coupled thermal–microstructural–mechanical finite element process model for directed energy deposition additive manufacturing of Ti–6Al–4V