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In agroecological systems, one thing leads to another, often in unexpected ways. In the 1950s a single pesticide application per season was sufficient to control the jassid bug Empoasca lybica , the only major cotton pest in the Gezira of Sudan at the time (1). However, the spraying killed the natural enemies that had previously held populations of the cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera in check. Intensive spraying against the bollworm’s larvae during the 1970s and 1980s led to the emergence from obscurity of whiteflies, Bemisia tabaci. They became primary pests in need of further control, and then there were also outbreaks of aphids, Aphis gossypii. Faced with crippling control costs and the development by the pests of resistance to the pesticides used against them (2, 3), the Sudanese eventually resorted to the integrated pest management approach. A similar but more complicated series of events is described for the cotton fields of China in PNAS by Zhang et al. (4), but in China it is not only trophic cascades leading to new pest upsurges but also effects of land-use alterations and climate change.Protagonists of the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for pest control argued that crops incorporating the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins, such as Cry1Ac, would be a panacea, as they would obviate the need for pesticide sprays. Thus, Bt cotton was allowed to be planted in the United States in 1995, in China in … [↵][1]1Email: R.A.Cheke{at}greenwich.ac.uk. [1]: #xref-corresp-1-1

New pests for old as GMOs bring on substitute pests