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Recently, we provided broad evidence for a negative association between community diversity and the abundance of human and wildlife parasites (1), supporting the dilution effect hypothesis (2). Salkeld et al. (3) point out that our meta-analysis reached a different conclusion than their previous meta-analysis on the dilution effect (4), which focused solely on 13 effect sizes from six species of human parasites. Salkeld et al. (3) argue that their smaller sample size is justified because only field studies capture the ecological realism necessary to test the dilution effect hypothesis. However, field studies can have confounding variables that can generate false-positive or false-negative relationships between diversity and disease. Although laboratory studies often more confidently capture cause–effect relationships, they can be contrived. Hence, given these costs …

Reply to Salkeld et al.: Diversity-disease patterns are robust to study design, selection criteria, and publication bias