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In insects, the gall-inducing life-style has evolved independently many times. Several evolutionary pathways leading to this lifestyle have been proposed. While there is compelling evidence supporting surface-feeders and stem-borers as ancestral states of insect gall-inducers, an evolutionary pathway from leaf-miners remains hypothetical. Here we explored this question by comparing the developmental processes of two micromoths, a gall-inducer  Caloptilia cecidophora  (Lep., Gracillariidae), and its non-gall-inducing relative  C .  ryukyuensis . Like other  Caloptilia , the first and second instars of  C .  cecidophora  are leaf-miners and the gall is initiated inside the leaf mine by the third instar, thus suggesting leaf-mining as an ancestral, plesiomorphic state in this case. This is the first example of an insect species switching from leaf-mining to gall-inducing during larval development. The first two leaf-mining instars of  C .  cecidophora  exhibit an absence of growth and a reduced time duration compared to  C .  ryukyuensis . The shortening of the duration of leaf-mining stages is apparently compensated in  C .  cecidophora  by a larger egg size than  C .  ryukyuensis , and an additional larval instar during the gall phase.

Origin of gall-inducing from leaf-mining in Caloptilia micromoths (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae)