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The aim of this study is to describe four new cases of trepanation from the Great Hungarian Plain and complement two other previously published cases with new results from the 9 th  to 16 th  c. CE. Sex determination and age-at-death estimation were performed using classical macromorphological methods. In certain cases, radiographic imaging, 3D scanning, and radiocarbon dating were also performed. Our cases fit the formerly established understanding of trepanations, with a male majority and signs of trauma as accompanying symptoms. The cause of intervention was mostly therapeutic, i.e., trauma, in most cases. In order to simplify the currently confusing nomenclature in trepanation categories (complete–incomplete vs. surgical–symbolic), we propose the use of “trepanation” exclusively to all forms of intentional, non-violent removals of all three layers of the cranial vault. On the other hand, the phenomena widely known in Eastern Europe as symbolic trepanations should be designated as “cranioglyphs,” referring to all forms of superficial interventions administered to the cranial vault that do not penetrate all three layers of the bone. In case the data are insufficient to properly categorize the phenomenon at hand, one should refrain from it, and simply describe the lesion as intentional cranial intervention. In order to bring spotlight to the wide range of cranial interventions in the early medieval Carpathian Basin, our team is conducting several research projects, in order to contribute to a better understanding of these traditions in the future.

New insights in the investigation of trepanations from the Carpathian Basin